Targeting Cancer Stem Cells Using Nanoparticles: A Review of Emerging Diagnostic and Therapeutic Strategies

Abstract

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) constitute a small but pivotal subset of tumor cells implicated in cancer initiation, progression, therapeutic resistance, and relapse. These cells possess distinctive properties such as self-renewal, multilineage differentiation, and elevated expression of drug efflux transporters, which collectively contribute to their resistance against conventional therapies. Advances in stem cell biology including research on dental mesenchymal stem cells have elucidated the regulatory roles of key signaling pathways such as Wnt/β-catenin, Notch, and Hedgehog in maintaining CSC stemness and plasticity. In parallel, nanotechnology has emerged as a powerful tool for addressing CSC-associated challenges. Engineered nanoparticles offer targeted delivery through CSC-specific surface marker recognition, pathway inhibition, and induction of differentiation. Moreover, their ability to enhance imaging and combine therapeutic and diagnostic functions within a single platform (theranostics) has opened new avenues for personalized cancer care. This review critically examines the molecular characteristics of CSCs, outlines therapeutic vulnerabilities, and highlights recent advancements in nanoparticle-based strategies aimed at improving the diagnosis and eradication of CSCs particularly in oral and head and neck cancers.